Intercultural Pentecostal Theology1

ISRAEL OLUWOLE OLOFINJANA

Eucharisma 1, (Spring 2024), 72-78.

Introduction

Britain has been a home to many spiritual renewals and awakenings over the years. From these shores, some of these awakenings have been a blessing to different parts of the world as missionaries have travelled to different parts of the globe to serve. Whilst some aspects of this mission history are contentious because of the context of enslavement and colonialisation, nevertheless, there have been fruits from those missionary endeavours that now mean Britain is at the receiving end of missionaries from those former mission fields. 

How is this reverse mission, particularly the emergence of what we know in the UK as Black Majority Churches (BMC) contributing to spiritual awakenings? One of the things that I believe God is doing today in Britain is the development of an intercultural missionary movement as a result of the blessings and gifts that Majority World Christians are to the UK church and society at large. In this article, I will reflect on this by firstly exploring the history of Pentecostalism in Britain, drawing attention to its intercultural origins and nature. This will be followed by considering the development of Black Pentecostal churches in Britain as an example and lastly reflect on the ongoing intercultural conversations that are developing in Britain and what God might be doing through these discussions. My positionality is that I am a Baptist minister rooted in African Pentecostalism and came to the UK as a missionary. I therefore consider my identity as a ‘Bapticostal’ navigating and embracing Charismatic, Pentecostal and historic church contexts and practices. I have had the privilege of leading three different multicultural churches which included a charismatic church and currently serve with the Evangelical Alliance UK leading an intercultural network called One People Commission.

Origins of the Pentecostal Movement in Britain 

The year 1906 is very significant in modern Pentecostal history, as it was the year that the Pentecostal revival of Azusa Street in Los Angeles started, led by William J. Seymour. Some scholars and commentators see this event as the beginning of the Pentecostal Movement, while others will argue that it was in 1900/1901 at Topeka, Kansas with Charles Parham that modern Pentecostalism originated.2 A further debate associated with the history of Pentecostalism is whether Charles Parham (1873 –1929) or William J.  Seymour (1870 –1922) is the founder of the movement. Those who prefer Parham do so on the basis that he formulated the Pentecostal theology of speaking in tongues as the initial evidence of the baptism of the Holy Spirit.  However, others prefer Seymour on the understanding that the Pentecostal missionary movement and ecumenical vision which transcends race started with Seymour’s movement in Azusa Street in 1906. 

It is an historical error to assume that modern Pentecostalism originated in the United States with the events of 1906. The Azusa Street revival is very significant in the history of modern Pentecostalism partly because it later gave birth to Classic Pentecostal churches such as the Church of God in  Christ (COGIC); the Church of God Cleveland, TN; Apostolic Faith Church; the Pentecostal Holiness Church; the Assemblies of God; the Foursquare  Gospel Church, and many more.3 However, there were other streams of  Pentecostals that emerged separately in other parts of the world, such as the  Jamaican Revival of 1860 –1861; the Mukti Mission in India from 1905 –1907;  the Korean renewal movement from 1903 (Pyongyang 1907); and African Initiated Churches (AICs) at the beginning of the 20th century.4 However, the origins of Pentecostalism in Britain are closely linked to the event in Azusa Street. 

The Welsh Revival, led by Evan Roberts in 1904, was the catalyst for the Pentecostal Movement in Britain as it sowed the seeds and laid the foundation for the emergence of Classic Pentecostal churches in Britain, such as the Elim Pentecostal Church, The Apostolic Church and the Assemblies of God Great Britain. The Welsh revival also inspired what later followed at the Azusa Street revival, as Frank Bartleman, the official historian of the Los Angeles revival, corresponded with Evan Roberts inquiring about the principles of revival and also asked Roberts to pray for revival in California.5 However, it was the influence of the Azusa Street revival on T. B. Barratt from Norway, Cecil Polhill, Alexander A. Boddy, and others like them that led to the start of Pentecostalism in Britain. Boddy and Polhill were the founders of the first Pentecostal missionary movement in Britain known as the Pentecostal Missionary Union. 

Alexander Boddy (1854 –1930), an Anglican priest at All Saints in Monkwearmouth, Sunderland, is considered the father of British Pentecostalism  because his church was a meeting point where different people came to experience the baptism of the Holy Spirit beginning in 1907.6 One of the  people who was baptised in the Spirit through Boddy’s ministry was Smith Wigglesworth (1859 –1947), a true pioneer of the faith.7 Another person who was baptised in the Spirit at one of the revival meetings in Sunderland was  Rev. Kwame Brem-Wilson, a Ghanaian businessman and schoolmaster.8

Brem-Wilson was born in Dixcove, Ghana in 1855 and came to Britain in 1901. In 1906, Brem-Wilson started a church known as ‘God’s House’ in Peckham, South East London. He developed relationships with the founders of the Apostolic Church, D. P. Williams and W. J. Williams. These inter-ethnic relationships were very rare at that time when it was generally not socially acceptable among white Christians to associate with black people. It reveals the Pentecostal significance of breaking down church traditions and racial barriers. In addition, it also demonstrates the ecumenical inclinations of early Pentecostals in Britain. This early relationship is quite significant and foreshadows some of the more recent Anglican-Pentecostal relationships that have emerged; for example, that between Jesus House led by Pastor Agu Irukwu and Holy Trinity Brompton formerly led by Nicky Gumble; the Anglican-Pentecostal Theological consultations; the instalment of Bishop Tedroy Powell of the Church of God of Prophecy as the third Pentecostal President of Churches Together in England (CTE); and the partnership that exists between the Church of  England and the Apostolic Pastoral Congress (APC), a black-led Pentecostal network. These intercultural church unity are crucial for our current context. 

But what might God be doing now? Before looking at what God is up to in Britain, I want to briefly examine the history of Black Pentecostal churches in Britain as a way to understand why an intercultural missionary move of God is significant. This history reveals the trauma that African and Caribbean communities have to endure in the pain of racism. The history of African churches that follow after whilst different also reveals the otherness they also experienced. 

Caribbean Pentecostal Churches 

The 1940s and 1950s saw an influx of Caribbean families into the UK due to the invitation of the British government to come and help rebuild the country after the devastation of the Second World War. Many people from the Caribbean responded to this call but to their surprise and dismay, they were rejected by society and the church. This period is usually referred to as the Windrush generation, as the ship SS Empire Windrush brought 493 people from the Caribbean on 22 June 1948 to Tilbury, London. The year 2023 marked the 75th anniversary of this migratory experience.  The majority of the people from the Caribbean saw and regarded themselves as British citizens, being part of the Commonwealth, and therefore expected to be treated as such. Instead, they were faced with posters saying, ‘No Irish, No Blacks and No Dogs.’ They soon realised that the idea of a commonwealth was an illusion; the wealth was not common and they were second-class citizens. Walter Hollenweger, in an introduction to a seminal book on the black church in Britain written by Roswith Gerloff, comments that, ‘Christians in Britain prayed for many years for revival, and when it came they did not recognise it because it was black.’9 This rejection, coupled with other factors,  such as loyalty to church denominations and the formality of British Christianity,  led to the formation of Caribbean Pentecostal and Holiness Churches. The first Caribbean Pentecostal church founded in the UK was the Calvary Church of God in Christ, which started in London in 1948. The church became affiliated with the Church of God in Christ, USA in 1952, and they now have 21 congregations in the UK.10 Others soon followed, such as the New Testament Church of God (1953); the Church of God of Prophecy (1953); the Wesleyan Holiness Church (1958); and the New Testament Assembly (1961), now with about 18 congregations in Britain.11

Since the 1990s, a new generation of Caribbean Pentecostal churches have emerged in Britain. These churches have a wider appeal to Caribbean British Christians who are second- and third-generation descendants of the original immigrants. Many of the leaders are second- or third-generation Caribbean British Christians as well. These churches are Pentecostal and as such have dynamic worship and worship teams; they make use of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and have creative preaching styles. These churches are very proactive in terms of community and social engagement, providing services such as food banks, debt counselling, soup kitchens, prison ministries and many more. Examples of these churches are Ruach City Church Ministries, led by Bishop  John Francis (1994); Christian Life City (1996) led by Bishop Wayne  Malcolm; Micah Christian Ministries (1998) led by Pastor Denis Wade; The  Tabernacle Church (formerly called The Bible Way Church of the Lord Jesus  Christ Apostolic) led by Pastor Michael W. White; Greater Faith Ministries  led by Bishop Lennox Hamilton, and a host of other churches.12

African Pentecostal Churches 

The independence of sub-Saharan African countries from 1957 onwards led to increasing numbers of African diplomats, students and tourists coming to Britain. When they discovered, like the Caribbeans before them, that they were rejected by the British churches and society at large, this led to the founding of African Instituted Churches (AICs) in London. The first of these churches to be planted was the Church of the Lord (Aladura), planted in 1964 by the late Apostle Oluwole Adejobi in South London. This church has its headquarters in Nigeria. Others soon followed, such as the Cherubim and Seraphim Church in 1965; the Celestial Church of Christ in 1967; and Aladura International Church in 1970. Others include Christ Apostolic Church (CAC) Mount Bethel founded by Apostle Ayo Omideyi in 1974; Christ Apostolic Church (CAC) of Great Britain in 1976; and Born Again Christ Healing Church founded by Bishop Fidelia Onyuku-Opukiri in 1979. All these churches were led from their headquarters in Nigeria. The first of the Ghanaian churches to arrive in England was the Musama Disco Christo Church (MDCC) in London in 1980.13 

The 1980s and 1990s witnessed the rise of African Newer Pentecostal Churches (ANPCs) from West Africa. For example, one of the former largest churches in Western Europe is Kingsway International Christian Centre (KICC) founded in 1992 by Matthew Ashimolowo (a Nigerian). Another of the fastest-growing churches in the UK is The Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG), which was started in Nigeria in 1952 by the prophet Josiah Akindayomi. This church began in the UK in 1988-89 through the efforts of David Okunade and Ade Okerende and they now have more than 850 churches in the UK. They also have churches in Germany, Norway, Spain, Holland, Italy, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Greece, Portugal, Luxemburg and the Czech Republic. The current General Overseer is Pastor Enoch Adeboye, and the UK National Overseer is Pastor Leke Sanusi, Senior Pastor of Victory House in south London. Victory House is known as a house of prayer due to their love of prayer and hosting several prayer conferences and gatherings. RCCG UK also organises a Christian Festival called ‘Festival of Life’ at the Docklands Excel Centre which, before the pandemic, attracted around 40,000 people.

What is God currently doing in the UK?

Having explored the painful history of black Pentecostalism in the UK, how is God moving to bring about an intercultural healing process? The global pandemic and the death of George Floyd in the United States have opened up opportunities for conversation on the issues of race and how we can create inclusive communities to mitigate exclusion. There is a renewed interest in developing what could be described as intercultural churches. Before the death of George Floyd, it is fair to say that we were all working towards creating multicultural churches that had great representation but the power dynamics still resided in one community therefore leading to the assimilation or absorption of other nationalities and cultures into the dominant culture or ethnicity. For the purposes of this article, my own definition of multicultural churches are churches that have different nationalities, cultures, generations, ethnicities and classes represented, co-existing, and working most of the time towards a British way of doing church. In essence, representation, tolerance, co-existence and assimilation to a British way of doing church are the essential ingredients in these types of churches. But since the pandemic and the death of George Floyd, I believe the spirit of God ruptured something and opened our eyes to the possibility of intentionally creating a ‘new humanity church’ that affirms the humanity of all in a way that allows for a journey and process of integration as opposed to assimilation. So, what is an intercultural church?

Intercultural churches are churches that have embraced God’s vision and gift of ethnic and cultural diversity therefore intentionally creating spaces and contexts where different cultures, nationalities, ethnicities, generations and classes integrate mutually and meaningfully to create something new for the sake of God’s kingdom purposes. The key elements here are intentionality, integration, mutual inconvenience to use Michael Jagessar’s14 description of intercultural engagement and God’s kingdom.

Not everyone has caught this prophetic vision yet of an intercultural ecclesiology, but what I am seeing is God’s Spirit moving and raising catalysts in different denominations, networks and streams all over the country and using them to pioneer and lead the way on this. This is beginning to happen within the Elim Pentecostal church with some key leaders pioneering conversations on how to create inclusive communities but also developing what could be described as templates of an intercultural church. Similar conversations are happening within the Newfrontiers churches.

For example, one of the initiatives I am involved in is the Intercultural Church Conversation (ICC). is an idea to promote the approach of intercultural churches as a significant way of doing church in the UK in a season when there is division and polarisation in both church and society. The idea is to promote this through online conversations and conferences. The vision strategy is to ground this conversation in Biblical conviction, empower confidence in practice and enable connection through networking that brings all the practitioners together. Partner organisations are: Evangelical Alliance, Intercultural Churches UK, Salt and Light Ministries, Capstone Community Church (an independent charismatic church), British East and South-East Asia Christian Collective (BESEA.CC) and London City Mission. This initiative is being well received and God is using it to break down racial and cultural barriers in different parts of Britain. We are seeing people from Black Pentecostal churches, South Korean churches, Chinese churches, South Asian churches, Latin American churches and white British churches engaging in these conversations. I believe that through these conversations God’s healing process is also taking place for those who might have experienced racial injustices and trauma. But I also believe that these conversations are still in their initial stages and where the Spirit might want to be leading us, if we can be reconciled with each other in the church and demonstrate an intercultural ecclesiology, this could shape our public witnessing ushering in a national renewal. In essence, our intercultural unity is crucial to a spiritual awakening in the nation. 

Concluding Reflections

This article has looked briefly at the history of the Pentecostal movement in Britain as a way to illustrate intercultural relationships that existed at the start of the movement. Whilst these intercultural dynamics were not sustained as we see in the developments of later black Pentecostal churches, we see that after the pandemic and the death of George Floyd, a new opportunity to pursue an inclusive church that affirms the humanity of all nations is emerging. This intercultural approach to church is very different from a multicultural approach to church which has its goal as assimilation.   In an intercultural approach to church the goal is to journey towards something new similar to the church Paul describes in Ephesians 2. This can be adequately described as the ‘new humanity church’ which is reconfigured on the notion that we are all created in the i15mage of God and therefore all equal, and all deserving of respect and dignity. This new humanity church is I believe a start of something that could be a catalyst for a spiritual awakening in Britain. This is because when we are reconciled with each other and experience healing, God can use that process to birth something new in the nation. We are still in the early stages of this in Britain, but there are signs pointing in the right trajectories therefore inspiring hope!

  1. Some of the excerpts for this piece were taken from Israel Olofinjana, Historical development of Black Pentecostal churches in Britain: A case study of the Apostolic Pastoral Congress, ANVIL 37:3, November 2021. ↩︎
  2. Alan Anderson and Walter Hollenweger, eds., Pentecostals After a Century: Global Perspectives on a Movement in Transition (Sheffield, Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 41– 42. ↩︎
  3. Some of these churches started before 1906 but the events of the revival shaped their theology, ecclesiology and mission. ↩︎
  4. Some of the AICs developed as a result of praying for healing during the influenza  that took place after the First World War and as a reaction against the Colonial  Christianity that the Mission Churches introduced into Africa. See Roswith  Gerloff, “Churches of the Spirit: The Pentecostal/Charismatic Movement and  Africa’s Contribution to Renewal of Christianity,” in Christianity in Africa  and the African Diaspora, eds. A. Adogame, R. Gerloff and K. Hock (London,  Continuum, 2008), 209. ↩︎
  5. Frank Bartleman, Azusa Street: The Roots of Modern Day Pentecost (Plainfi eld,  NJ, Logos International, 1980), 13 –15 and Robert Liardon, God’s General (California, Roberts Liardon Publishing, 1998), 89 – 93. ↩︎
  6. Peter Hocken, Streams of Renewal: The Origins and Early Development of the  Charismatic Movement in Great Britain (Australia, Paternoster Press, 1986), 145. ↩︎
  7. Lester Sumrall, Pioneers of Faith (Sumrall Publishing, 1995), 171. ↩︎
  8. Babatunde Adedibu, Coat of Many Colours (London, Wisdom Summit, 2012), 26. ↩︎
  9. Roswith Gerloff, A Plea for British Black Theology, vol. 1, (Eugene, OR, Wipf  and Stock Publishers, 2010). ↩︎
  10. https://cogic.org.uk/2020/04/01/about/ accessed 08/03/24. ↩︎
  11. http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/religion-in-london/resource-guides/black-majority church.htm. ↩︎
  12. Israel Olofinjana, Reverse in Ministry and Mission: Africans in the Dark Continent of Europe (Milton Keynes, Author House), 41. ↩︎
  13. Olofinjana, Reverse in Mission, 37. ↩︎
  14. Jagessar, Michael, Ethnicity: The Inclusive Church Resource, (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 2015). ↩︎
  15. Milne, Bruce, Dynamic Diversity: The New Humanity Church for Today and Tomorrow, (Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 2006)
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